Customs and transport glossary

A T1 document is opened at the office of departure and discharged at the office of destination, and the customs debt remains suspended throughout the entire carriage. It is used for non-EU goods, for example goods moved from a port to a customs warehouse or to the country where import clearance will take place.

The procedure requires a guarantee covering the potential customs debt. Pay attention to the deadlines for presenting the goods at the office of destination and to the integrity of the seals: failure to discharge the transit may trigger proceedings and the assessment of the amounts due.

Read more: T1 or T2 transit: when to use which.

T2 confirms and maintains the Union customs status of the goods, so that after passing through an area outside the customs union the goods are not treated as an import. It is typically used for carriage involving transit through a third country or through territories with a separate customs status.

As with T1, a guarantee and correct discharge of the procedure at the office of destination are required. The key point is to distinguish T1 from T2 correctly: an error in the status of the goods leads to incorrect clearance and disputes over the amounts due.

Read more: T1 or T2 transit: when to use which.

An EORI number is required for a company to lodge customs declarations and carry out customs activities within the EU. It is assigned by the customs authority in the country where the operator is established, and a single number is valid throughout the customs union.

Without a valid EORI you cannot carry out an import or an export, so it is worth verifying the number before the first clearance. Operators established outside the EU also need an EORI if they act as a party to a customs declaration.

The SAD gathers the data needed for clearance: the consignor and consignee, the TARIC code of the goods, the value, the origin, the procedure and the basis for assessing the amounts due. Today declarations are lodged mainly electronically, and the SAD functions as a structured set of declaration data.

The accuracy of the SAD fields translates directly into the amount of duty and VAT and into the time it takes to release the goods. An incorrect tariff code or customs value is the most common source of corrections and controls.

The MRN is issued once the declaration is accepted by the customs system and makes it possible to unambiguously link a consignment to a specific procedure, for example a transit or an export. The driver and the parties to the transaction use it in dealings with the office and at the border.

The number is sometimes provided as a barcode as well, which speeds up controls. It is worth ensuring that the MRN is current and closed at the right moment, because an open procedure can block subsequent logistics steps.

The ATA Carnet replaces standard customs declarations in the countries that have joined the system and simplifies the temporary export and return of the same goods. It works well for exhibition equipment, commercial samples and professional equipment.

The condition is that the goods return in an unchanged state within the set deadline. Note: the carnet does not cover goods intended for sale or for processing, and exceeding the deadline or failing to re-export may result in the amounts due being assessed.

Read more: ATA Carnet or temporary admission: what to choose for trade fairs.

Temporary admission allows goods to be used within the EU customs territory for a set period without permanent release for free circulation. It is applied, among other cases, to equipment for events, machines for testing or vehicles in specific situations.

The relief may be total or partial, and the procedure requires a guarantee and compliance with the re-export deadline. The ATA Carnet is one of the tools handling this type of import, but not the only one.

Read more: ATA Carnet or temporary admission: what to choose for trade fairs.

Procedure 42 makes it possible to clear an import in one EU country and move the goods to a recipient in another Member State without paying import VAT in the country of entry. The tax is settled by the buyer in the country of destination as an intra-Community acquisition.

The mechanism requires that the formal conditions be met, including valid VAT numbers of the parties and correct documentation of the intra-Union supply. Gaps in the documentation are a frequent reason for the exemption being challenged and the tax being reassessed.

Read more: When is Procedure 42 worth it? A decision guide.

An EUR.1 certificate is issued in connection with preferential agreements between the EU and selected countries, so that the importer in the country of receipt can benefit from a lower duty. The basis is compliance with the rules of origin applicable to the given agreement and the given goods.

The document is endorsed by the customs authority or an approved exporter at the exporter's request. Note: the certificate alone is not enough if the goods do not meet the rules of origin, and errors in this respect may lead to the loss of the preference and the payment of additional duty.

Read more: When you need an EUR.1 certificate and when a statement on origin is enough.

The tariff code assigns goods to a heading in the customs tariff, which drives the duty rate, the VAT rate, any additional duties and the required licences and controls. In the EU the eight digits of the Combined Nomenclature (CN) are used, and the TARIC system adds further digits for specific measures.

An incorrect classification is one of the most common sources of corrections, additional payments and disputes, because it translates directly into the amounts due and the legality of the clearance. The code is set on the basis of the properties of the goods and the explanatory notes, and where in doubt it is worth considering binding tariff information (BTI).

Read more: Customs tariff code CN/HS: how to find it.

The primary method for establishing the customs value is the transaction value, to which certain elements are added or from which they are deducted, for example transport and insurance costs up to the EU border. Duty is charged on the value set in this way, and the customs value increased by the duty in turn forms the basis for import VAT.

Where the transaction value cannot be applied, the rules provide for fallback methods used in a set order. Understating the customs value is a serious risk, because it leads to a reassessment of the amounts due and to the declarant's liability.

Read more: How customs duty is calculated: the customs value step by step.

Passar is the digital platform being introduced in Switzerland under the DaziT customs modernisation programme. It is set to handle the declarations and border processes previously run in the e-dec and NCTS systems, based on reference numbers assigned to the consignment and the vehicle.

For carriage to and from Switzerland this means a change in how data is submitted and new technical requirements on the declarant's side. The scope of the functions and the transition deadlines follow the FOCBS timetable, so the details should be confirmed at source.

Read more: Passar Swiss customs: a step-by-step guide.

For years e-dec handled electronic import and export customs declarations in Switzerland, including the generation of assessment decisions. The system is being phased out under the DaziT programme in favour of the Passar platform, which changes how declarants work.

During the transition some processes may run in parallel, so for deliveries to and from Switzerland you should confirm which system applies to a given declaration. The current status and deadlines are set by the Swiss customs administration.

Read more: Deliveries to Switzerland: e-dec and charges.

De minimis thresholds differ by country and by type of charge, and a separate threshold may apply to duty and another to tax. Below the threshold the consignment is relieved of the given charge, while above it the normal collection rules apply.

In trade with Switzerland the amounts and rules follow national legislation and can change, so the specific values should be confirmed before shipping. Bear in mind that relief from one charge does not automatically mean relief from the remaining obligations.

Read more: De minimis thresholds when importing into Switzerland.

Under DDP the seller is responsible for transport, import clearance and the payment of duty and taxes, up to making the goods available to the buyer at the agreed place. This is convenient for the buyer but shifts to the seller the risk of formalities and costs in a foreign customs system.

A common problem is that a seller commits to DDP without being able to recover import VAT in the buyer's country. That is why, under DDP, it is essential to establish in advance who will actually carry out the clearance and account for the taxes, to avoid the consignment being blocked.

Read more: Incoterms mismatch DAP vs DDP: who pays duty and import VAT.

Under EXW the seller only prepares the goods for collection at their own premises, while the buyer arranges loading, transport and clearances and bears the risk from that point. It looks like the simplest rule, but it shifts numerous obligations to the buyer, including in the seller's country.

A trap is export clearance: formally it rests with the buyer, who often has no representative or registration number there. In exports from the EU it is often safer to agree a rule under which the seller is responsible for the export, to avoid problems with proof of export and the VAT rate.

Read more: EXW: a trap for the exporter.

The commercial invoice contains the details of the seller and buyer, a description and quantity of the goods, the price, the currency, the delivery terms (Incoterms) and often information on origin. It is the basis for establishing the customs value and selecting the tariff code, so its accuracy is crucial.

The invoice is usually accompanied by a packing list describing the contents and weight of each package. Discrepancies between the invoice, the packing list and the goods are a common cause of clearance being held and of controls.

Read more: Commercial invoice and packing list for customs clearance.

A proforma looks similar to a commercial invoice but does not document a sale and is not a basis for accounting entries. It is used among other cases for samples, replacement goods, complaints or shipments without payment, to present a value for customs purposes.

In clearance a proforma may be accepted where there is no commercial transaction, but it does not replace a commercial invoice in an ordinary sale. Using the wrong document is a typical cause of customs queries and delays.

Read more: Proforma vs commercial invoice: the differences.

CDS handles electronic customs declarations in the UK and gathers the data needed to assess the amounts due and carry out risk analysis. It has replaced the older CHIEF system, introducing a different data structure and rules for completing declarations.

For companies moving goods to and from the UK this means lodging declarations that meet CDS requirements, often working with a customs agent. The system connects with the border clearance run on a pre-lodgement model and with links in GVMS.

Read more: CDS: the UK customs declaration system.

Unlike an ad valorem duty, calculated as a percentage of value, a specific duty relates to a physical unit, for example a rate per 100 kg of weight. Switzerland traditionally charges many duties by the gross weight of the goods, which makes weight decisive for the calculation of the amounts due.

Under such a model the packaging and tare affect the result, so declaring the gross weight correctly has a financial impact. The specific rates follow the tariff of the given country and should be confirmed for the correct code of the goods.

Read more: Customs duty by gross weight in Switzerland.

CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) is the EU's carbon border instrument: importers of covered goods (steel, aluminium, cement, fertilisers, hydrogen, electricity) report embedded emissions and, ultimately, purchase CBAM certificates. For steel and aluminium imports from the UK this means reporting duties for the EU importer — details and the timeline are set by the European Commission.

The hammer price is the amount at which the auctioneer knocks the lot down — and only the starting point of the calculation. The auction house adds the buyer's premium at the percentage set in its terms, plus taxes under those terms. When buying machinery in the UK, transport, customs clearance and possible dismantling come on top — which is why the total landed cost is calculated before bidding.

The buyer's premium is the auction house's fee added to the hammer price — its rate and the tax treatment are set by the terms of the specific auction, which is why the real purchase cost is calculated BEFORE bidding. For machinery bought at UK auctions the premium forms part of the import cost base together with the hammer price.

GVMS supports the pre-lodgement model at the Great Britain border, where declarations must be lodged before the vehicle arrives at the port. The system groups the individual customs declarations under a single Goods Movement Reference (GMR) tied to the vehicle.

The driver must hold a valid GMR for the ferry carrier or Eurotunnel operator to allow the vehicle to board. GVMS also tells the driver, after crossing, whether the goods are cleared or routed for an inspection.

Read more: GVMS and GMR step by step: preparing a movement for the UK border.

A GMR is a unique reference created in GVMS before the crossing begins. The driver or forwarder adds the reference numbers of the individual customs declarations to it, so that one vehicle is represented by one movement record.

Without a valid GMR the carrier should not allow the vehicle onto the ferry or train. On arrival in Great Britain the GMR is used to check whether the load is cleared or must be held for inspection.

The ENS (Entry Summary Declaration) carries the cargo data required for safety and security risk analysis before the goods physically reach the EU border. It is processed in ICS2 (Import Control System 2), which replaces the earlier ICS.

The obligation to lodge an ENS and the applicable deadlines depend on the mode of transport and the role in the supply chain. Missing or incorrect ENS data can lead to the load being held, so scope and timing should be confirmed for the specific route.

SIVEP (Service d'inspection vétérinaire et phytosanitaire aux frontières) carries out France's border checks on goods subject to sanitary and phytosanitary requirements, such as products of animal origin and plants and plant products. The checks take place at designated border control posts.

For SPS-controlled loads this means prior notification and presenting the goods for inspection, which must be built into the crossing plan. The scope of the checks and the required documents depend on the type of goods, so they should be confirmed for the specific shipment.

Read more: SIVEP: veterinary and phytosanitary border checks in France.

The PBN is used in Ireland's clearance model, where the required customs declarations must be linked to a specific vehicle before it boards the ferry. The PBN groups the relevant reference numbers into a single record tied to the crossing.

Without a valid PBN a vehicle should not be allowed onto a ferry bound for Ireland. On arrival the status in the system shows whether the load is cleared or needs to be checked, which directly affects crossing planning.

Read more: Cargo stuck in Ireland without a PBN: who pays for the standstill and the missed sailing.

VOEC is Norway's VAT collection mechanism dedicated to e-commerce sales of low-value goods to consumers. A registered seller or marketplace charges Norwegian VAT at the point of sale and accounts for it under a simplified procedure, instead of the tax being collected at the border.

Correct use of the VOEC number on the shipment simplifies the border handling of such consignments. Value thresholds, category exclusions and registration duties follow Norwegian rules and should be confirmed at source.

A T2L is used to document that goods have Union customs status, which avoids them being treated as non-Union goods on movements where such proof is required. The T2LF variant is used in trade with territories that have a special tax status within the EU customs territory.

Proof of Union status can be essential on routes involving sea legs or special territories. The acceptable forms of proof, including electronic solutions, and the conditions for their use follow EU customs rules and should be confirmed for the specific route.

REX lets a registered exporter certify the preferential origin of goods themselves via a statement on origin, instead of obtaining a certificate from an authority for each case. The party uses its assigned REX number on origin-related documents.

A correct statement on origin can enable tariff preferences where the relevant agreements or arrangements provide for them. The scope of use, registration conditions and origin rules follow the applicable legislation and specific agreements, so they should be confirmed at source.

The Windsor Framework organises the flow of goods from Great Britain to Northern Ireland by separating it into two channels. The green lane covers goods regarded as staying in Great Britain and provides simplifications for them, while the red lane applies to goods subject to fuller formalities.

Assigning a consignment to the correct lane depends on the conditions of the arrangement and the party's status in the relevant schemes. Because the qualifying conditions and required data are detailed, they should be confirmed at source for the specific movement.

SENT covers selected categories of sensitive goods, for example certain fuels, denatured alcohol or dried tobacco, for which the sender, the recipient and the carrier submit a report in the register. The movement is completed with the vehicle data and, where required, data from a geolocation locator.

A missing report or incorrect data risks penalties and the transport being stopped, so the scope of the obligation and the list of goods must be checked before carriage. The catalogue of goods covered by SENT and the details follow Polish legislation and are updated from time to time.

Read more: The SENT system: monitoring the transport of sensitive goods in Poland.

ISPM 15 concerns wood packaging such as pallets, crates and dunnage used in international trade. The wood must undergo an approved treatment, for example heat treatment, and carry a mark with the symbol and a code confirming compliance with the standard.

A missing required mark or the use of non-compliant wood may result in the packaging being held, returned or destroyed at the border, which burdens the load with cost and delay. The requirements are applied by individual countries, so for exports it is worth confirming them for the country of destination.

Read more: ISPM 15 and wooden pallets.

For the haulier the matter has two sides. The first is the Home Office procedure: whether the vehicle was secured in line with the required system, whether the driver checked the trailer before entering the port and whether there is proof in the form of a completed checklist. The second concerns the load: goods that people have been hiding among are treated as potentially contaminated and need an inspection before delivery, often followed by a decision of the owner or insurer on what happens to them.

That is why the pre-port trailer check is not a formality. The driver inspects seals, cords, roof and underside and records the result on a checklist kept with the transport documents. If a detection happens anyway, the load usually goes to a warehouse for examination rather than straight to the consignee, who in most cases would refuse it at the gate.

Read more: Trailer inspection after clandestine entrants: procedure and driver checklist

The penalty can hit three parties at once: the vehicle owner, its hirer and the driver, each liable for their own share. In practice this means a forwarder subcontracting a UK job should know whether the haulier has an effective vehicle security system in place and whether drivers actually complete the checklist, because these are the documents presented to the Home Office in response to a penalty notice.

The scheme also covers an “inadequately secured” vehicle even when nobody is found inside. An inspection can therefore end with a penalty for missing seals, a torn curtain or the absence of a check record. OTSL prepares the full set of border documents and requires drivers to check the trailer before the port; responsibility for the trailer itself, however, stays with whoever operates it.

Read more: Clandestine entrant penalties in the UK: how the civil penalty scheme works

CMR governs the carrier's liability in road carriage where the place of taking over and the place of delivery are in two different countries, at least one of which is a party to the convention. The CMR consignment note is the primary evidence of the contract of carriage and of the condition and quantity of the goods on take-over.

Pay attention to reservations entered on the note at loading and unloading, the deadlines for notifying damage, and the liability limits the convention provides for the carrier. A missing timely reservation weakens a later claim.

Read more: Damage report and CMR reservations.

OCP protects the carrier from the financial consequences of claims for loss, shortage or damage to cargo and for delay, within the limits of its liability under the contract of carriage and the applicable rules. Scope, sums insured and exclusions depend on the individual policy.

Watch for exclusions, which often cover high-risk goods, subcontracted carriers, theft under conditions not meeting policy requirements, or carriage not declared to the insurer. Always verify the terms of an order against the actual policy wording, not a general description.

Read more: Carrier liability is not enough: why CMR will not cover a high-value, lightweight load.

ADR harmonises the rules for carrying dangerous goods to reduce the risk to people and the environment during road transport. It covers, among other things, classification of substances, choice of packaging, marking of packages and the vehicle, transport documentation, and the driver's equipment and training.

Pay attention to correct classification and the transport document, the validity of certificates and qualifications, and restrictions on combining loads. Errors in marking or documentation can lead to the vehicle being stopped during an inspection.

FTL is used when the load fills the vehicle or when the principal needs direct carriage without intermediate transhipment. Because the goods are not combined with other customers' shipments, this usually shortens transit time and reduces handling of the cargo.

It suits larger, homogeneous consignments, goods sensitive to handling, and tight delivery windows. For smaller quantities it is worth comparing the cost against groupage carriage.

LTL lets you send goods that do not fill the whole vehicle and pay for the space used rather than for the entire transport. Different customers' shipments are consolidated, which lowers the unit cost for smaller quantities.

Consolidation, however, means additional transhipment at terminals and usually a longer transit time than direct carriage. For goods sensitive to handling, ensure proper packaging and marking.

Read more: FTL or LTL (groupage): when to choose which in road freight.

Incoterms standardise who arranges and pays for each stage of delivery, who bears the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, and at which point that risk passes to the buyer. This helps parties from different countries agree without referring each time to national law.

An Incoterms rule does not by itself transfer ownership of the goods or replace the contract of sale, and its meaning depends on the edition of the rules used. In an order, always state the specific rule, the place, and the Incoterms edition you are referring to.

LSVA is a charge levied in Switzerland for the use of the road network by heavy goods vehicles. Its amount depends on the vehicle's permissible weight, the number of kilometres driven and the emission class, which is intended to encourage the use of newer and cleaner fleets.

When planning carriage through Switzerland, include this charge in your costs, together with the obligations for settling it and the required on-board equipment. Check current rates and rules in official Swiss administration sources before quoting.

Booking means agreeing a specific arrival time with the warehouse or consignee, often together with driver details, the order number and the type of load. This organises traffic at the docks and helps avoid queues and overlapping deliveries.

Missing the time slot can mean waiting for the next free one, and consequently detention and additional cost. Agree booking requirements before carriage, as they depend on the procedures of the particular unloading site.

Cross-docking shortens the supply chain because goods are transhipped and rerouted onward instead of going onto racking. Shipments are sorted, and possibly combined or split, then quickly moved to outbound vehicles.

The method requires good synchronisation of inbound and outbound flows and smooth data exchange, because a delay on one side blocks the transhipment. It works well with stable, predictable goods flows and short handling times.

A reefer maintains a set temperature thanks to the unit and insulated body, which allows chilled and frozen loads to be carried without breaking the cold chain. What matters is the correct temperature setting, proper loading that ensures air circulation and monitoring of the conditions en route.

For sensitive goods pre-cooling the load space and a temperature record as proof that conditions were kept are also important. Deviations can lead to the delivery being rejected, so temperature requirements are agreed before carriage.

Read more: Temperature-controlled transport and the cold chain.

Demurrage covers the period during which a container stays in the port or terminal after the free time allowed for its collection has expired. The charge is usually applied for each started day of delay, and the rates rise as the holding time increases.

The most common causes are delayed clearance, missing documents or the lack of available transport for collection. Demurrage is easy to confuse with detention, so in settlements it is worth distinguishing where the container physically is and which charge applies.

Read more: Demurrage and detention: the costs of holding a container.

Detention covers the time a container spends outside the terminal, after it has been collected and before the empty unit is returned. The charge is usually applied for each started day beyond the free time, for example when unloading at the consignee drags on.

Unlike demurrage, which concerns a container in the port, detention relates to a unit at the consignee's disposal outside the terminal. To limit costs, unloading and the return of the container are planned in advance and the free-time deadlines are watched.

Read more: Demurrage and detention: the costs of holding a container.

In road carriage under the CMR Convention, compensation for loss of or damage to goods is, as a rule, limited to 8.33 SDR per kilogram of missing gross weight. The SDR is a basket unit of the International Monetary Fund, and its value is converted into currency at the rate of a specified day.

The limit means that compensation may be lower than the actual value of the load, unless a higher value or a special interest was declared against a surcharge, on the conditions set out in the Convention. That is why, for valuable goods, it is worth considering additional cargo insurance.

Read more: Carrier liability limit: 8.33 SDR per kg.

In the groupage model the customer pays for the space actually occupied, for example the number of pallets or loading metres (LDM), rather than for the whole vehicle. Shipments are consolidated, often with transhipment at a terminal, which lowers the unit cost but lengthens and complicates the route.

Groupage works well for smaller, regular shipments where a dedicated vehicle is not needed. In return for the lower price you have to reckon with a longer delivery time and more handling operations, which is worth taking into account for sensitive goods.

Read more: Groupage and LTL deliveries across Europe.

A tachograph records the driver's activity, which makes it possible to check driving-time limits and the required breaks and rest. Newer vehicles are fitted with digital tachographs, and the data is read from the driver card and the device memory during roadside checks.

For delivery planning this means that the real journey time depends not only on the route but also on mandatory rest periods, which must not be skipped. Breaches risk penalties and, above all, increase risk on the road, so delivery deadlines are set with the working-time rules in mind.

Read more: Driver hours, the tachograph and the delivery deadline.

In GOH transport clothing is carried on hangers suspended from rails in the load space, so that garments arrive ready for display, without creases and without the need for ironing. The method is used in particular for high-quality clothing and seasonal collections.

In return for saving time on unpacking and preparing the goods, GOH usually uses the space less efficiently than cartonised loads, which affects the calculation. Suitable trailer equipment, securing of the rails and protecting the clothing from soiling en route are important.

Read more: Clothing and footwear transport: cartons and garments on hangers (GOH).

FBA (Fulfilment by Amazon) is Amazon's logistics model: the seller delivers stock to a fulfilment centre and Amazon handles storage, packing, dispatch and returns. Deliveries to FBA warehouses must follow Amazon's requirements: a booked delivery window in Carrier Central, carton and pallet labels, and product prep rules. After Brexit, deliveries from Poland to UK fulfilment centres also require customs clearance.

Carrier Central is Amazon's portal for transport companies: carriers register an account and book delivery time slots at fulfilment centres. A booking requires shipment identifiers from the seller's shipment, the pallet count and the destination warehouse code. Arriving beyond the tolerance window forfeits the slot and requires a new booking.

ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone) is London's emission zone managed by Transport for London. It covers Greater London; vehicles that do not meet the emission standard pay a daily charge. For trade fair deliveries to venues such as ExCeL London, matching the vehicle to the ULEZ standard is part of transport planning, not an afterthought.

LEZ (Low Emission Zone) restricts entry for vehicles that do not meet emission standards. In Scotland, LEZ schemes operate in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee, enforced with penalty charges. For trade fair deliveries to the Scottish Event Campus in Glasgow, choosing an LEZ-compliant vehicle is a mandatory part of planning.

The choice between a rigid and an articulated unit is made at the quoting stage, not on loading day. A rigid makes sense when the consignment fits within 18 euro pallets, the delivery goes into a city centre with weight restrictions, or the yard is too tight for a tractor and trailer to turn. The 12-tonne variant carries fewer pallets but can enter streets where an 18-tonner is already banned.

When planning, state the weight of the heaviest pallet and whether the consignee has a loading dock. That decides whether the tail lift is enough and whether the driver can unload alone with a pallet truck. At trade fairs a rigid is often the only vehicle that reaches the hall door within the build-up window, which is why stand deliveries in Kielce and at European exhibition centres rely on this type of truck.

Read more: How many pallets fit on a 12 t and 18 t rigid truck, and what the tail lift carries

A tail lift solves the missing-dock problem, but not every version of it. Its capacity is rated per cycle, so a pallet heavier than the lift limit will not reach the ground even though the truck carries it with ease. The second limit is the surface: a pallet truck will not roll on gravel, grass or a steep ramp, and the platform needs level ground to lower onto.

That is why we ask three questions before departure: the weight of the heaviest pallet, the type of surface at the unloading point and whether the consignee has its own forklift. If the answers exceed what the lift can do, we propose a crane truck or unloading by the consignee. Settling this at the quoting stage avoids a truck standing at the address with no way to get the goods off.

Read more: Tail lift, lorry crane or dock: how to unload where there is no ramp

In forwarding practice a “pallet space” means the footprint of a euro pallet, and groupage quotes refer to exactly that. An industrial pallet of 1200 × 1000 mm takes more room in the trailer and is often counted as 1.5 spaces. The same applies to overhang: if a carton extends beyond the pallet edge, the carrier charges for the space the load actually occupies, not for the pallet itself.

When booking, state not only the number of pallets but also their true footprint and height. Vehicle selection depends on it: a rigid with 18 EP spaces will not take 18 industrial pallets, and a standard trailer has 33 spaces only for pallets without overhang. Exchanging EUR pallets on delivery is a separate matter to agree before loading, because not every consignee operates a pallet exchange.

Read more: Pallets, packaging and load securing in international transport

Double-stacking doubles the vehicle’s capacity, but it transfers the whole weight of the upper pallet onto the packaging of the lower one. Cartons of drinks or tinned goods usually take it; cartons of light electronics or cosmetics may not. The decision is made at loading: the upper pallet must sit on a flat, even top layer, and both must be wrapped so that they do not shift against each other under braking.

Consignees state their position plainly in supplier manuals. Some centres accept only single pallets up to a set maximum height, others allow stacking if the lower pallet carries a top cap. Before shipping to Amazon or a retail chain, check the requirements of the specific site, because a stacked delivery that ignores them ends in a refusal or a costly rebuild on the spot.

Read more: Pallet height and stability for Amazon: mushrooms and tilted stacks

For the consignee in Europe the difference shows mainly after the container arrives. With FCL, the consignee or its forwarder collects the whole box from the port, hauls it to a warehouse, devans it and returns the empty within the deadline set by the shipping line. With LCL, the container goes to a consolidation warehouse where the consignments are separated, and the consignee receives its share already on pallets, with no contact with the container and no return deadlines.

The choice also affects customs: with FCL the declaration usually covers one consignment from one shipper, while with LCL every consignment has its own paperwork and its own clearance even though it travels in one box. In the UK it matters where the container will be devanned and who hauls it from Felixstowe, Southampton or London Gateway, because the free days for return count from discharge off the vessel, not from arrival at the warehouse.

Read more: Container demurrage and detention: where the charges come from and how to cut them to zero

When vetting a haulier, the Community licence is the first document we ask for, but showing it is not enough on its own. We check that it is valid, that the number of certified copies matches the fleet and that the company named on the licence is the same one signing the order. A mismatch between the name on the licence and the name on the invoice is a typical sign of someone impersonating a genuine business.

On routes to the UK the Community licence gets the vehicle to the port; the onward carriage is governed by the EU–UK trade agreement, with a limited number of cabotage operations allowed in Great Britain. For destinations outside the Union not covered by an agreement, an ECMT permit or a bilateral permit may be needed. The driver must carry an original certified copy in the cab, not a photocopy, because roadside enforcement does not accept a scan.

Read more: CEMT permits and road transport: when a Community licence is not enough

The exchange mechanism rewards price and speed, not certainty of performance. The shipper sees a company profile and its ratings, but not who will actually sit behind the wheel or whether the load will be sold on. That is exactly how impersonation fraud works: someone sets up an account with the details of a genuine, well-rated haulier, takes the load and disappears with it, and the victim finds out when the consignee asks where the delivery is.

OTSL works with a standing pool of hauliers whose documents have been verified and who have completed jobs behind them, not with whatever is offered that day. This sometimes means a higher rate than the lowest exchange price, but also one accountable forwarder who knows which truck is running and who is driving it. For the customer the difference becomes visible only when something goes wrong: on an exchange there is nobody to hold responsible.

Read more: Why we do not buy loads on freight exchanges, the OTSL model

In practice cabotage looks like this: a Polish truck unloads an international consignment in Germany and, instead of returning empty, takes one or more domestic loads between German addresses. The limit is three such operations within seven days of unloading the international consignment, after which the same vehicle may not start another cabotage in that country for four days. The evidence is the CMR consignment notes and the tachograph records.

For a forwarder this means that not every free truck in Europe can take any load: you need to know how many cabotage operations the vehicle has already performed and when it entered the country. Exceeding the limit is the haulier’s liability, but an inspection can hold the truck with the customer’s goods on board while the case is processed. In Great Britain after Brexit the rules differ and follow from the EU–UK agreement, so a routing plan on the island is worked out separately.

Read more: Cabotage and cross-trade: why "just drop these off around Germany while you are there" can be illegal

For a haulier the Mobility Package means above all paperwork: posting the driver through the EU portal before cabotage or cross-trade, paying host-country rates for those legs, and planning routes so that the driver can return to base or home at the required intervals. The regular weekly rest must be taken outside the cab, which requires accommodation to be arranged and affects the timing of long runs.

The rules have also changed since adoption: in October 2024 the Court of Justice of the EU annulled the obligation to return the vehicle to base every eight weeks, so it should no longer be demanded of subcontractors or written into contracts. When placing work with partner hauliers, OTSL checks that the company files posting declarations and runs tachographs meeting current requirements, because a truck held at a roadside check means a delay to the customer’s goods.

Read more: The Mobility Package: driver posting, minimum wage and why rates went up

Restacking usually starts with a photograph: the driver or the warehouse opens the trailer and finds a leaning, cracked or collapsed pallet. Before anything is moved, the condition is documented, because that record shapes the later conversation with the insurer and the shipper. Only then is the pallet taken apart layer by layer, damaged units set aside and the load rebuilt.

The second common trigger is the consignee’s standard. Retail chains and Amazon fulfilment centres turn away pallets that are too tall, overhang or are poorly wrapped, so rebuilding before the booking is often cheaper than a refusal at the gate. After restacking the pallet is a new logistic unit: it needs a new label and, for deliveries with an ASN, a new SSCC.

Read more: Re-palletising and straightening pallets after a load shift

Repacking is ordered when the packaging itself is the problem, not the pallet layout: cartons got wet in transit, the consignee requires a different outer case, the batch is going to another market with different labels, or some units are damaged and must be separated from the rest. The warehouse counts the goods in, repacks them and counts again so that the report reconciles to the unit.

Food and cosmetics create the most work: a food-grade zone, checks on best-before dates and batch records are needed, and chilled products have to be handled in a temperature-controlled area. Before ordering a repack, hand over the specification of the target packaging, the consignee’s requirements and the name of the person who decides about damaged units, because without a written instruction from the owner the operator will not dispose of them.

Read more: Repacking services in the UK: how our food grade warehouse works

A hold starts with a precise description: what arrived, in what condition, with which seals and who is entitled to decide. The goods get a separate location in the warehouse and a marking so that nobody dispatches them by mistake as part of routine outbound work. The warehouse does not judge whether the goods are saleable; it supplies photographs, weights and counts, and the decision rests with the owner, the insurer or the authority.

The release has to be in writing and say what happens next: delivery to the original consignee, redirection, return to the shipper or disposal with a certificate. Storage is charged until the instruction arrives, so a quick decision is in the owner’s interest. The procedure protects everyone: nobody can later claim that the goods changed condition between receipt and dispatch, because every step carries a date and a photograph.

Read more: Quarantine, hold and release, and photo condition reporting

After a refusal, time matters: the truck stands loaded and the driver’s working hours keep running. The first step is to get the reason in writing: a missed slot, a pallet outside the consignee’s manual, labels or the condition of the goods. That decides whether the problem can be fixed in a nearby warehouse and the goods redelivered on a new slot, or whether the load must be held until the shipper decides.

In practice there are five routes: rectify and redeliver, redirect to another consignee, return to the shipper, store pending a decision, or dispose of with a certificate. For temperature-controlled goods the decision window is the shortest. That is why, for deliveries to UK retailers, the address of a buffer warehouse and the contact of a person on the shipper’s side who can decide without calling a meeting are agreed in advance.

Read more: Distressed load management and rejected supermarket loads, recovery in the UK

A delivery into an RDC follows the manual to the letter: a pallet of a set height with no overhang, a label in the specified position, paperwork matching the purchase order and, above all, arrival within the booked slot. Anyone who misses the slot is usually not received that day, and the next available slot can be days away. The retailer does not wait for a truck, because a queue of other suppliers is behind it.

Booking is done through the retailer’s portal or its booking desk, often several days ahead, and requires the order number, the pallet count and the vehicle details. For deliveries from Poland into UK RDCs the crossing and customs add risk: a delay at the border eats the buffer, and the slot does not wait. That is why unloading into a buffer warehouse and presenting the vehicle on time from near the centre is often more reliable than driving straight off the ferry.

Read more: Deliveries to UK retail distribution centres (RDCs): slots, specs, rejections

Co-packing comes into play when a producer does not want to reset its own line for a short run: a two-for-one promotion, a Christmas gift set or an outer case in a different configuration for one retailer. The operator receives the goods, the packaging materials and a specification with a drawing, and hands back finished units counted and labelled. Billing is usually per unit or per team hour.

The most frequent source of dispute is an incomplete specification: no information about the best-before date on the new pack, about the barcode the set must carry, or about what to do with surplus components. That is why a bill of materials, a reference sample and the method of reporting quantities are agreed before the start. For food and cosmetics a food-grade zone and batch control are also required, which is worth flagging in the enquiry.

Read more: Co-packing, kitting and bundling in the UK | OTSL

What separates kitting from co-packing is that a new product with its own code is created, not just a different pack for the same goods. The warehouse works from a bill of components: for each kit it picks specific units from different stock lines, puts them into one pack, applies the label and books the kit into the system. Component stock goes down, kit stock goes up, and the figures must reconcile at the end of the shift.

Typical uses are starter sets of devices with accessories, assembly kits for DIY chains and promotional bundles for e-commerce. The risk lies in incomplete kits: one missing minor component blocks the whole run, so before the start it is checked that every line has arrived in the required quantity. Once assembled, kits move on like ordinary palletised goods, with their own SSCC if the consignee requires one.

Read more: Co-packing, kitting and bundling in the UK | OTSL

An SSCC works like a pallet’s registration plate: it is unique worldwide and stays with the unit from loading to receipt. A consignee that has received an ASN listing the numbers scans the label at the gate and knows immediately what has arrived, without unwrapping anything. A number missing from the ASN, an unreadable barcode or a label stuck on the pallet corner instead of a flat face are the most common reasons retail chains send deliveries back.

Trouble arises when the pallet changes on the way: after restacking, after being split into two smaller ones or after goods are added. The old SSCC describes a unit that no longer exists, so a new one must be generated from the shipper’s GS1 range and the ASN updated. A warehouse doing the rebuild should have access to the shipper’s numbers or a label template; otherwise the rebuilt pallet travels to the RDC with a label that does not match the system.

Read more: Re-labelling and barcodes for UK retail (GS1, SSCC, retailer compliance)

Devanning starts before the doors open: the seal number is compared with the documents and photographed. Only then is the seal cut and the loading pattern assessed. A palletised container is unloaded by forklift in well under an hour; a loose-loaded container, carton by carton, needs a team, palletising on the spot and wrapping, which translates into hours of labour and cost.

Time has a financial dimension here, because the shipping line counts free days for returning the empty container and charges once they run out. The devanning warehouse therefore needs a dock and staff booked for the delivery day, and the container haulier a slot to take the empty back. During devanning the goods are counted and shortages or damage recorded; that report is the basis of any claim against the shipper or the insurer.

Read more: Cross-dock and transshipment warehouse in Milton Keynes (pallet transshipment)